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Research Report 1383
Training Strategies for the M1 Abrams Tank Driver Trainer C. Mazie Knerr, Susan D. Keller, and Janice H. Laurence Human Resources Research Organization
ARI Field Unit at Fort Knox, Kentucky
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Training Research Laboratory
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SEP 1. 81985
U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences October 1984 Approved for public release; distr;bution unlimited.
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U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel
L. NEALE COSBY EDGAR M. JOHNSON
Colonel, IN
Technical Director
Commander
Research accomplished under contract for the Department of the Army Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO)
Technical Review by Susan L. Burroughs Theodore R. Blasche
NOTICES t has been made by ARI. Primary distribution of this re DISTRIBUTION: U.S. Please address correspondence concerning distribution of reports to: ATTN: Sciences, Ar / Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social PERI-POT, 5001 Eisenhcwer Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600 This report may be destroyed when it FINAL UISPOSITION: Please do not return it to the U.S. Army Research needed. the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
Is no longer Institute for
The findings In this report are not to be construed as an official NOTE: Department of the Army position, unless so designated by other authorized documents.
UNCLASSIFIED St CURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (',en Dot* Entered)
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ARI Research Report IR3 4.
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TITLE (and SubtItle)
RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER
S.
TYPE 6F REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
Final Report January 1980
TRAINING STRATEGIES FOR THE Ml ABRAMS TANK DRIVER TRAINER
6.
-
December 1981
PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER
FR-MTRD(KY)-81- 18 7. AUTHOR(e)
8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(*)
C. Mazie Knerr, Susan D. Keller, and Janice H. Laurence
MDA9O3-80-C-0223
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
11.
PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK
10.
Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO) 1100 S. Washington Street Alexandria, VA 22314
AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS
2Q263744A795
CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS
12.
U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22333-5600
REPORT DATE
October 1984 13. NUMBER OF PAGES
100
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SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Contracting Officer's Representative was Donald M. Kristiansen. -
19.
*
KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side if nocoeary and Identify by block number)
Training device Driver training Training methods
Instructional features Tank driving
ABSThACr (Ce-.tkun m ievee.A
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ed
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-',The research objective was to develop guidelines for applying the Ml Abrams tank driver trainer (DT) to train tank drivers, including determining tasks trained, developing rules for applying the training device features, justify' j the use of these rules using principles of learning, identifying potenti,' device features, and integrating the DT into the Armor program of instruction. (Continued) DD .
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ARI Research Report 1383 20.
(Continued)
(_7,.Theresearch classified the DT tasks according to the Training Effectiveness and Cost Effectiveness Prediction Model (TECEP) which prescribes learning guidelines based on the behavioral activities, conditions, standards, and feedback of the tasks. Most of the tasks are procedural, but many of the procedures require voice communications, decision making, or both. One set of the DT programs presents the continuous movement tasks of driving such as steering. Some learning guidelines are common to all DT tasks (e.g., providing active practice and feedback) while others are specific to the type of task (e.g., high fidelity, continuous feedback for continuous movement tasks). Potential DT features pertain to all tasks (e.g., scoring tasks) or to specific tasks (e.g., increasing the number and repetition of decision-making tasks). Integration of the DT into the program of instruction considers use of the Ml tank technical manual, new programs orienting the trainee to the driving block of instruction and the driver's intercom, and changes in the device hardware and software.
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Research Report 1383
Training Strategies for the M1 Abrams Tank Driver Trainer C. Mazie Knerr, Susan D. Keller, and Janice H. Laurence Human Resources Research Organization Donald M. Kristiansen, Contracting Officer's Representative
Submitted by Donald F. Haggard, Chief ARI Field Unit at Fort Knox, Kentucky
Approved as technically adequate and submitted for publication by Harold F. O'Neil, Jr., Director Training Research Laboratory
U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600 Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel Department of the Army
October 1984 Army Project Number
Simulation and Training Devices
20263744A795
Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.
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ARI Research Reports and Technical Reports are intended for sponsors of R&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings ready tor implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last part of the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriatb military agencies by briefing or Disposition For.a.
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FOREWORD
A major research focus of the Fort Knox Field Unit is the effectiveness of training devices, device mixes, media, and techniques for the improvement of armor training and for determining the potential solutions to Army training systems problems.
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The M1 Abrams tank is more complex than any previous U.S. tank. The faster and more responsive M1 tank requires highly skilled drivers to fully utilize the tank's increased agility and mobility. The driver's contribution to the success of tank tactical engagements is critical. At the present time, most tactical driving training is conducted in the units. Prior to unit training, however, it is mandatory that drivers be trained effectively on how to operate the tank under varying terrain and weather conditions. As these demands require more training time, the rationale for an acceptable driver simulator is strengthened. Armor training is rapidly changing to incorporate new simulators and training devices to specialize training for specific MOS and to achieve and sustain high levels of combat readiness. The devices have training capabilities that are new in armor training programs. Since the device capabilities cannot all be evaluated directly in operational tests, research is required to determine whether methods useful in other simulators would generalize to devices for armor training. Furthermore, effective uses for such capabilities remain to be established in the armor context. This report describes the results of research conducted to determine guidelines for applying one of the devices, the M1 Abrams tank driver trainer. The results of this research can have implications for USAARMC and PM TRADE decisions on devices that will provide effective training of M1 drivers.
EDGAR M. JOHNSON Technical Director
W'~..-...-..-..-.:.--.....*................*.
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TRAINING STRATEGIES FOR THE M1 ABRAMS TANK DRIVER TRAINER
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Requi rement: The research objective was to develop guidelines for applying the Ml Abrams tank driver trainer (DT) to the training of tank drivers. The research includes determination of the tasks to be trained, development of rules for applying the device features to train the tasks, justification of the rules, identification of potential device features, and integration of the DT into the Ml Abrams tank program of instruction. Procedure: The research process analyzed the driving tasks irr the documentation provided by the DT manufacturer and in the Ml Abrams tank technical manual. Steps in the tasks were categorized according to the Training Effectiveness .andC^,. Effectiveness Prediction (TECEP) model, which prescribes learning guidelines based on the behavioral activities, conditions, standards and feedback needed. Procedures for determining the existing and potential device features included analysis of the DT documentation, questionnaires, and interviews with Ml Abrams driver instructors. Selected literature on computercontrolled training devices was reviewed for potential features. Findings: The DT trains basic procedures, malfunctions, and driving skills. Most of the tasks are procedural, but many of the procedures require voice communications, decision-making or both. One set of the DT programs presents the continuous movement tasks of driving (e.g., steering) including procedural, voice communications, and decision-making components.
'.
Some learning guidelines are common to all DT tasks (e.g., active practice and feedback), while others are specific to the type of task (e.g., high fidelity, continuous feedback for continuous movement tasks). Potential DT features pertain to all tasks (e.g., scoring improvements) or to specific tasks (e.g., increasing the number and repetition of decision-making tasks). Integration of the DT into the program of instruction considers the use of the MI Abrams tank technical manual, new programs (orienting the trainee to the driving block of instruction and the driver's intercom), and changes in the device hardware and software. Utilization of Findings:
,
The learning guidelines and uses of the potential DT features are designed for instructors and training developers of one-station unit (OSUT) training. During the research, interviewers collected information about how the instructors were integrating the DT into the training and, at the same time, presented vii
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ideas on its potential uses and features. Thus, most ideas described herein have been tried, suggested, or are in use with the DT. Some hardware and software changes are proposed for future consideration.
viii
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TRAINING STRATEGIES FOR THE M1 ABRAMS TANK DRIVER TRAINER
CONTENTS Page TRAINING STRATEGIES FOR THE Ml ABRAMS TANK DRIVER TRAINER ... Description of the DT and Programs ...... Classification of DT Tasks ........
........
1
.................. ......................
RULES FOR USE OF DT FEATURES TO TRAIN TASKS ...... General Learning Guidelines ..... .. ... DT Features for Specific Task Types ...... Summary ........ ........................
1 2 7
...............
7 16 26
.................. ................. ..........
INTEGRATION OF THE DT INTO THE PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION ............
... ...
................... AUTOMATED TRAINING DEVICE FEATURES ..... Taxonomy of Device Features ...................... Summary ....... .. .. ...............................
27 31 31 37
APPLICATION OF POTENTIAL DT FEATURES ....... .................. Features for All Task Types.. -..... ...... Potential Instructional Features for Specific'Task Categories .... Summary of Potential Features for the DT ..... ...............
39 39 43 45
SUMMARY OF DT FEATURES FOR TRAINING DRIVING TASKS ....
47
REFERENCES .....
...
............
...............................
...
APPENDIXES ............. ... A Tasks in DT Programs ........ ............. B TECEP Guidelines in Four Task Categories .............. C DT Tasks in TECEP Learning Categories .....
51 57 63 89
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Summary of DT Programs ....... .... .................. .. ............. .. .. Steps in TECEP Learning Categories ........... .... DT Features for General Learning Guidelines Instructor Station Features ..... .. ... ............. .......... Instructor Function and Program Controls . .. ... ..... ...... s DT Features for Procedure Learning Guideline . .... .. DT Features for Voice Communication Learning Guidelines DT Features for Continuous Movement Learning Guidelines . ....
ix
3 5 8 12 13 17 20 22
A
CONTENTS (continued) 9 10 1I 12 13 14 15
DT Features for Decision Making Learning Guidelines ... ....... 25 Conceptual Framework for Training Features ... ........... ... 32 Active Instructional Driver Trainer Features .... ........... 34 Potential DT Features for All Task Types ..... ............ 40 Potential DT Features for Specific Task Types .... .......... 44 Sumnary of Training Features by Task Types ... .......... ... 48 Summary of Potential DT Features by Task Types .... .......... 49
Figures 1 2 3
Audioscript for Procedure 83, 'Brake Failure' ..... Audioscript for a Continuous Task ..... ... Types of Tasks in Driver Trainer Programs .....
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9 24 28
TRAINING STRATEGIES FOR THE M1 ABRAMS TANK DRIVER TRAINER The M1 Abrams tank driver trainer (DT) was designed to familiarize new drivers and provide transition training for drivers trained on other tank models. The objective of this research is to develop guidelines for applying the DT device features to the training of M1 tank drivers. The research includes determination of tasks to be trained, development of rules for applying the device features to train the tasks, justification of each rulE using principles of learning and transfer of training, identification 9f potential device features, and integration of the DT into the program of instruction (POI). The remainder of this section describes the DT and programs, models for prescribing training strategies, and classes of DT tasks according to the models. The next section presents guidelines for training all DT tasks and for the specific tasks trained in the DT programs. A section designed for instructors who integrate the DT into the POI starts on p. 27. The last three sections present ideas for automated training device features, apply the ideas to the DT, and summarize uses of existing and potential DT features. DESCRIPTION OF THE DT AND PROGRAMS The DT contains five trainee stations controlled by instructors who monitor the DT instruments and controls on the main instructor's station (MIS) console or auxiliary instructor stations (AIS). The DT presents visual and audio simulations of tank starting and stopping procedures, instrument monitoring, and driving. DT training programs incorporate emergency situations and malfunctions that, if induced in the tank, endanger the trainee or equipment. Tasks trained in the DT are described in the device developer's engineering reports (Sperry SECOR, 1980, Vols. 1-4, with 1981 revisions) and the M1 Abrams tank operator's ianual (TM 9-2350-255-10, January 1980 or with revisions when available). The tasks are organized into procedure, malfunction, and driving programs (Appendix A). The first four programs contain 20 simple procedures, and programs 5-12 contain 37 malfunctions and emergency situations. The driving programs present driving scenarios incorporating 5 procedures and 12 malfunctions that were presented in earlier programs. The number of steps in a procedure ranges from zero to forty-five. Procedure 88, Battery Cable Disconnect, for example, has no steps; the narrated tape tells the trainee what to do if the battery cable becomes disconnected. Many of the early programs have only one monitored step; that is, the trainee performs one action that is detected, scored, and recorded by the DT. The first procedure familiarizes the trainee with warning and caution lights. The narrator describes the functions of the
*.1
Table 2 Steps in TECEP Learning Categories Number of. Steps Learning Categories
Steps 6
1
Voice Communication
167
23
Recalling Procedures, positioning movement (Procedures)*
514
71
Guiding and steering, continuous movement (Continuous Movement)*
36
5
723
100
Making Decisions
TOTAL *
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In parentheses are shortened forms of the learning category titles that ill be used throughout text.
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category contain all three types of steps. For example, if malfunctions occur during the driving (continuous movement) tasks, the trainee must communicate with the tank commander and make decisions while driving. Tasks in each learning category are listed in Appendix C.
6
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RULES FOR USE OF DT FEATURES TO TRAIN TASKS Classification of the driving tasks according to the TECEP categories prescribes training for each type of task. Rules for the training strategies are based on task characteristics, trainee ability levels and training phase, and are justified by fundamental principles of learning. Some training guidelines apply to all of the tasks while others apply only to tasks within a specific category. GENERAL LEARNING GUIDELINES The procedures for instructional system development cite four principles that enhance learning of all task types (Department of the Army, 1975): 1. 2. 3. 4.
Inform trainee of the objectives Guide and prompt the trainee Provide for active practice Provide feedback to the trainee
As shown in Table 3, the DT has features which relate to each of the general learning guidelines. The following paragraphs explain, under the heading of each guideline, how the DT features meet these general training requirements. Inform the Trainee of Objectives Each program contains an audio instructional script in which the narrator describes the task to be learned, initial conditions, and end of the procedure or program (Fig. 1). Guide and prompt the trainee Step-by-step instructions prompt the trainee in the sequence of steps, explain reasons, alternatives and consequences of performance (Fig. 1, Lines 4 - 38). The training guidelines recommend dividing the task into parts, depending on the ability of the trainees, complexity of the task, and length of the task. Practice should be on specific components prior to practice on the whole task. The DT meets this requirement by providing step-by-step instructions in the programs the first time that the trainee must perform task segments. Later in the programs the same tasks must be performed by the trainee without the aid of detailed instructions. For example, in Procedure 85, 'Alternator Failure,' of the Procedure programs, the indications of alternator failure are demonstrated and explained to the trainee. The trainee is also guided through the steps necessary in handling the problem. 'Alternator Failure,' Malfunction 6 of Driving Program 25, happens while the trainee is driving. The preprogrammed instruction tapes do not tell the trainee when the malfunction occurs, what malfunction it is, or what to do. The trainee must draw upon his earlier procedure program training to recognize the symptoms of malfunction and remember the proper steps to take in resolving it.
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Introductory Statement:
You are now going to perform Procedure Number 83, Brake Failure. We will start the procedure now.
Step No. Audioscript
Line
1 I
First, observe that the brakes seem to be opearting normally. Apply the service brakes several times. Note the travel of the brake pedal and the force it takes to pus, it down.
2
We will now fail the brakes. Before we do, however, remember that with the turbine engine there is no compression or drag from the engine. You cannot downshift to slow down. Now apply the brakes again. Note how easy it was to push. If moving, brake failure will be even more apparent when you apply the brakes and nothing happens. When the brakes fail your first concern again- is to get the tank stopped safely. The method you use will depend on the situation. If terrain permits, just coast to a stop. Remember that when the tank slows down to 3 or 4 miles an hour, you can put the parking brake on.
3
5
10
15
20
If going up hill you can slow down and hold the tank with the throttle or slow then apply the parking brake. You may also choose just to continue up the hill to a level place. The worst situation is a brake failure going down a steep hill. If it is too dangerous to attempt making it all the way down the hill, you should consider making a turn across the slope. If this is not possible you have no alternative but to run into something that will stop the tank.
4
30
Whatever the situation it is imperative to notify the TC and crew that the brakes failed so they can brace themselves. Now key your mike and say 'Sgt., the brakes failed.' You should also tell him how you plan to stop.
35
The TC will respond and perhaps suggest how to stop. Once stopped, the chances are that Organizational Maintenance will be required. That concludes this procedure. Stand by for futher instructions.
39
Figure 1. Audioscript for Procedure 83 'Brake Failure'* *
25
From Sperry SECOR, 1980, Vol. 3, pp. 730-733.
9
The training guidelines also emphasize the need to increase stress and distractors in the later phases of training so that the training environment approximates the level of stress found in the operational context. The DT meets this requirement by first introducing the trainee to an isolated task and later embedding the same task in the driving situation. Thus, the trainee must perform despite the presence of distractors and stressors such as turbine engine noise, moving visual scene, the necessity of continuing to drive the tank, and the lack of guidance from the narrator. For example, when brake failure occurs in Malfunction 3 of the later programs, the trainee is driving and he is given no guidance by the audioscript to warn him of the failure or to tell him what to do. Provide for Active Practice Training programs. The driver trainer is furnished with 19 prerecorded programs which contain over 60 procedures and malfunctions for the trainee to practice. Many of these procedures and malfunctions appear more than once throughout the programs and so allow for repeated practice (e.g., 'engine shutdown'). The procedure programs familiarize the trainee with skills he must learn before driving. During these programs the trainee does not practice driving and, hence, does not view the visual scene through his periscope. These procedures guide the trainee through operations such as: power-up hull and engine shutdown; indications of malfunctions (e.g., loss of power, alternator failure, thrown track); steps to take to handle malfunctions; and the feel of the throttle, T-bar and brake pedal. During the driving programs the trainee practices driving while viewing a video tape of a scene external to the tank. The driving programs contain both procedures and malfunctions. The procedures teach the trainee skills directly involved with driving the tank, such as 'placing the tank in motion' and 'driving over an obstacle.' Repeating the malfunctions gives the trainee the opportynity, within the context of a driving situation, to practice skills he gained in the procedure programs. Instructors can also construct manual programs using the contents of procedure and driving programs to provide the trainee with additional practice. Up to 69 manual programs can be stored to augment the automatic programs.
10
Instructor's stations. The instructor's stations assist the instructors in training management and allow them to monitor, evaluate, and control trainee practice sessions. The main instructor station (MIS) is designed for one or two instructors. It features a double console with alphanumeric keyboards, and two visual monitors for each console. The visual monitors are 12-inch color cathode-ray tubes (CRT) on which the instructors can view the visual scene being presented to the trainee and monitor the trainee's progress. Auxiliary instructor stations (AIS) attached to each trainee station allow direct monitoring of the instruction. The AIS have fewer features than the MIS (Table 4). The controls for training managment (e.g., those for performance displays, communications, training programs, etc.) are summarized in Table 5. These controls enables the instructor to select programs in any sequence; stop programs at any time (FREEZE); repeat, advance, or hold procedures (the HOLD function stops training at the end of each procedure); and store, print and clear performance records for the five trainees. The instructor can obtain several CRT displays that facilitate training management. For the automatic programs, displays present the individual procedures and malfunctions so that the instructor can select programs that meet the needs of the trainee. Displays are also available for the titles and contents of the automatic procedure programs. If the instructors construct manual programs, the DT provides for their display also. Instructors at the MIS can monitor the progress of trainees at all five stations at once by using the Training Status Display which presents the following data for each station: 1.
Trainee station number (1-5)
2.
Number and name of the programs in progress
3.
Number of procedures and malfunctions in the program
4.
Audio (step-by-step instructions) on or off
5.
Four procedures in the program (procedure names scroll upward so the instructor can always see the procedure just completed, in progress and to be presented)
6.
Number of steps in each of the four procedures
7.
Step in progress
8.
Trainee score on the step in progress
9.
Final score on procedure just completed
1-
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Table 4 Instructor Station Features Main Instructor Station 1. Two-Operator Console 2. Line Printer 3. Two Alphanumeric CRT Displays 4. Two Visual Monitor Displays 5. Two Keyboards 6. Lighted Switches Indicate Trainee Status 7. Two Headsets 8. Set of Function Controls 9.
Set of Display Controls
10.
Set of Communication Controls
11.
Set of Audio Controls Auxiliary Instructor Station
1. CRT Monitor 2. Power Controls 3. Function Controls 4. Communication Controls 5. Audio Controls 6.
Headset
7. Shelf
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Workspace
12
Table 5 Instructor Function and Program Controls PROGRAM READY
enters the selected program
RUN/FREEZE
causes the designated trainee station to start/stop the procedure or program selected. FREEZE automatically flashes at the end of a program or when the trainee makes an error
HOLD PROCEDURE
causes program to stop automatically after each procedure in the program
REPEAT PROCEDURE
cause simulation to return to the start of a procedure and repeat
ADVANCE PROCEDURE
bypasses all elements of a procedure; repeated activation skips a number of procedures
PREVIEW
displays first page of stored performance data for designated trainee station; repeated activation presents subsequent pages
REPEAT PROGRAM
returns to the start of a program and repeats
PRINT
activates the line printer to produce hardcopy printout of all stored performance data for the designated trainee station
INSTRUCTION OFF
deletes the step-by-step instructions during procedures and malfunctions; the introduction, initial conditions, tank commander voice simulation, and end statement play in all cases.
STEERING OFF
removes from the trainee's view the steering indicator needle for the designated trainee station (steering indicator needle will be described later)
VISUAL REVERSE/ NORMAL/FORWARD
moves the visual scene tape backward or forward; returns to the normal position when released; the visual scene and the audio are synchronized by the machine; can skip parts of the driving program or reset the scene to correspond to where the trainee stoppped the tank
13
the training in progress for performance Individualtrainee. an individual Data displays elements present are: 1. Trainee station number (1-5) 2. Name and social security number of the trainee 3. Program number, number of procedures in the program, and audio (step-by-step instructions) on or off 4. Name and number of the procedure in progress and the number of steps 5. Content of procedure steps and action to be taken 6. Trainee score on each step (performed correctly or FREEZE-FAIL) 7. Status of switches, lights, controls, and instrument readings, (e.g., tachometer, speedometer, fuel, voltmeter, etc.) Physical simulation of tank driver's compartment. DT equipment features simulate physical and operational characteristics of the tank in the five trainee stations. These stations provide the setting for trainees to practice procedure sequences using apparatus similar to the equipment in the actual tank. DT features include the throttle and brake controls, intercommunication headsets, switches, meters, circuit breakers, periscopes, and other items. Through the headset the trainee hears background sounds (turbine engine whine, vehicle track noise, transmission engage and disengage, etc.). In the driving programs, audiovisual scenarios simulate environmental conditions and pre-recorded voice tapes simulate communication from the tank commander. Provi de Feedback Feedback is a rather generic term which encompasses such processes as reinforcement and providing knowledge of results. Most behavior involves feedback of some kind. A feedback process involves comparison of a potential or ideal state against an actual state. For example, in aonegative feedback system, the actual state (e.g., a thermostat reading oS 50 F) is compared to a potential state (e.g, a thermostat reading of 80 F). 'The difference between these states is feedback to a system (e.g. heater) and this enables a regulation process to begin (e.g., the heater to turn on until the difference disappears). For the purposes of describing driver trainer tasks, the potential state can be thought of as 'correct' behavior and the actual state as 'error' behavior. Information about the trainee's behavior is fed back to him/her in order that it may govern future behavior.
14
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One type of feedback is reinforcement. Reinforcement involves either the presentation of a reward (positive reinforcemet) or the removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement). The definition of reinforcement also involves a functional relationship, that is, not only must a stimulus be present or removed but its effect on behavior must be to increase its occurrence. Reinforcement is feedback but feedback is not necessarily reinforcement. Providing knowledge of results is another type of feedback. By providing individuals with information about their performance (e.g., verbally, test scores, etc.), they are able to discriminate which behavioral repertoires are appropriate or correct in a given situation. To be effective, the information must be salient and the individual must attend to and comprehend the information and its relationship to the behavior in question.
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The procedure and driving programs provide opportunities for instructors to give feedback to the trainee through automatic 'freeze' upon trainee error and displays of performance measures. If the trainee violates one of the scoring rules, the station for that trainee 'freezes' and the trainee is failed on the incorrectly performed-step. In the FREEZE condition, the audio and visual simulation halts and a five-second siren tone sounds in the trainee's headset. Thus, the FREEZE condition provides the trainee with external information about his performance--it signifies that an error has been made. Whether or not it acts as a punisher of the 'error producing' behavior is uncertain. If participation in the procedure and driving programs are reinforcing events then it would be reasonable to expect FREEZE to act as a punisher since it involves time out from a reinforcing situation. Furthermore, the siren may be an aversive stimulus and act as a punisher in its own right. To demonstrate whether punishment is involved in FREEZE, the error producing behavior must be shown to decrease contingent upon the halting of the simulation and/or the sounding of the tone. A printout of scores is provided after the program as a result of performance measures displayed on the instructor's CRT (these diplays were outlined under 'Instructors' Stations'). The DT provides a copy of the individual trainee's scores containing detailed diagnostic information, including: 1.
Trainee, program and procedure identification
2.
Trainee performance on each step (OK, ERROR, SLOW, VERY SLOW, or OBS for a step that requires only passive observation)
3.
Summary data for procedures (times attempted, number of steps, steps performed correctly and incorrectly, and trainee score for the steps)
15
4.
Driving program speed and steering scores by driving segment
5.
Driving scores combined with procedure and malfunction scores for overall program score
The feedback on the DT audio and visual tapes is not adaptive to trainee performance and, thus, may present incorrect cues. The feedback does not seem to affect performance and thus it appears that neither reinforcement nor punisiment are operating. This problem will be discussed in greater detail under the section on continuous movement tasks. DT FEATURES FOR SPECIFIC TASK TYPES TECEP guidelines for specific task categories vary in their requirements for support from the DT features. Some learning guidelines such as feedback and reinforcement are common to all task types; that is, they apply regardless of specific task categories. Thus, all the DT features that provide scores to the instructor support the task types described in the following paragraphs. However, the following discussions focus on those training guidelines unique to the tasks in question. Procedures Procedural tasks require two different types of skill. The first is the physical skill to position controls and manipulate equipment, which is usually not challenging and is within the trainee's repertoire. Training emphasis is on the second type of skill, the recall of procedural steps and sequences. The procedural sequence is often predetermined and routine so that it requires minimal judgment and decision-making. Memory may be required, but cues from the equipment, environmenc, fellow crew members, one's own behavior, or checklists facilitate recall. The TECEP guidelines for procedural tasks emphasize three factors: Restructuring the task to take advantage of part-task training, reduction of memory demands, and extensive practice with feedback (Table 6).
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Table 6 DT Features for Procedure Learning Guidelines Learning Guidelines for Procedures Divide tasks into steps, then train the sequence
. _
Memory
Practice with feedback
Step-by-step instructions
Narrative links steps to displays
Repetition of procedures occurs during the programs
Early programs contain simple groups of tasks
Program demonstrates displays
Trainee can repeat programs
Late programs train complete set of steps
Trainee practices with guidance
Manual programs augment repetition
Train sequences of tasks
Instructors need to incorporate technical manual, job aids
Feedback (was described for all tasks)
17
Training algorithms for procedural tasks also emphasize the need to divide the procedure into steps, train progressively larger groups of steps, and train the chaining of the steps into the total procedural sequence. Memorization demands are reduced by the chaining since each step cues the performance of the subsequent step. These guidelines are especially important if the procedures are long, difficult, or must be performed in stressful conditions, and if the trainees are low in aptitude. Tank driving has these problems in the operational setting. The DT restructures the tasks early in training by dividing them into many simple steps and then chains the steps in sequence to form whole procedures. Recall of procedures requires that the trainee learn cues to reduce the memory load. The TECEP guidelines suggest demonstrations of the correct performance, verbal explanations by the trainee of the cues and their associations, and use of mnemonics (especially in early stages of learning). The DT step-by-step instructions guide the trainee through practice of the procedures while providing the names of the equipment components. The programs automatically turn indicator lights on and off according to the audio script to identify displays and switches. Labels for displays and controls normally in the driver's compartments are reproduced in the DT, and the coupling of prompts with labels under actual prac-o tice conditions meets the requirement of the guidelines. Step-by-step instructions appear in the tank technical manual (operator's manual) and in other job aids. The DT does not, at present, incorporate the use of the manual and aids. Thus, the instructors need to explain use of the manual with the DT programs. The technical manual and job aids serve as the memory aids suggested by the TECEP guidelines. The training guidelines recommend extensive practice to enhance retention of the procedural skills through internal (e.g., kinesthetic) feedback generated by positioning movement. The DT programs allow repeated practice to develop this internal feedback. Many procedures such as 'Warning and Caution Lights' occur again and again throughout the programs. Also, the instructor can locate procedures as desired. The manual program capability enables the composition of programs containing procedures that need more practice than others. Isolating these procedures in a separate program facilitates their use and repetition.
,
18
Performance evaluation, scoring, and feedback are critical to training of procedural tasks. TECEP guidelines recommend immediate and frequent feedback and specifically positive reinforcement early in training. Trainees of low ability need more reinforcement than others. Although the need for positive reinforcement as well as other types of feedback is the most notable characteristic in the training algorithm for procedural tasks, the features for feedback in the DT are minimal. The Driver Trainer does not automatically provide behavioral information. Instead, the DT freezes when the trainee makes an error so that the instructor can give feedback as to the nature of the error and what to do to correct it. Thus, substantial instructor intervention is needed to provide adequate information and postiive reinforcement, especially for low-ability trainees. By monitoring performance displays instructors can determine which trainees have high failure rates and consequently give them more instruction and feedback, while allowing trainees who need less help to progress through the automatic programs on their own. Instructors can use the AIS to work closely with a trainee who is having trouble. Trainees who perform poorly on even the simple procedures may need additional training materials, instructions from the instructor, and positive reinforcement after correctly performed procedures. Training effectiveness is increased in all types of tasks trained in the DT through features that link procedural steps to cues and enhance memorization by feedback, high levels of initial learning, and performance practice. These features also apply to procedural tasks and hence to all DT programs since each program contains some procedural steps regardless of whether the majority of steps are in some other category (e.g., continuous movement). Other DT features have special uses for 'Voice communication,' 'Continuous Movement,' and 'Making Decisions' task categories. Voice Communication Voice communication in the military context comprises conversations using standardized message formats. Ordinary speech patterns must be altered to meet military requirements. Messages must be brief, have a single meaning common to all participants, and be delivered in the presence of noise. Learning principles for voice communication tasks are: teach anticipation of certain messages, model correct voice communication procedures, and enhance ability to perform with distractions by overlearning. How the DT features fulfill these training guidelines is discussed below and summarized in Table 7. The learning guidelines recommend demonstrating the correct communications and emphasizing critical cues and responses. They also advise teaching the trainee to expect certain messages, given a particular situation. The following excerpt from the audio tape typifies how the DT exercises prepare the'trainee for TC messages and demonstrate for the trainee the correct communication procedure (Sperry SECOR, 1980, Vol. 2, pp. 267-268):
19
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Teach anticipation of certain messages and model correct voice communication procedures
Enhance ability to perform with distraction by overlearning
Narrator tells trainee what TC would say or what to say to TC under particular circumstances
Audio tapes which realistically simulate TC orders
UT
100 out of the total 118 DT tasks require trainee to practice voice communication formats which are often quite similar Graduated levels of stress and distraction
20
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'At this point you are connected to the tank NBC system and should make a communications check. Press the mike button, and say 'Driver Commo Check' then release the mike button.' 'You should now make a commo check which the TC will again acknowledge. Press the mike button, say 'Driver Commo Check' and release the mike button.' In order to make voice communication training resistant to the pressures of the operational setting, learning guidelines recommend gradually increasing distraction and stress during training sessions. DT programs meet this requirement by starting with simple voice communication demands in the early procedure programs and then increasing the demands in the driving prograrns. For example, in the early procedure programs, the trainee is guided through communication exercises with demonstrations and prompts. By contrast, in the driving programs the communications occur without prompts, in the presence of ambient noise, and while the driver must also attend to steering, speed control, and malfunctions. To increase the trainee's ability to perform under stress, learning principles suggest that the student practice correct performance to the point of overlearning. One hundred out of the total 118 DT tasks provide communications practice. Many of these tasks require the trainee to report to the tank commander and listen to a prerecorded tape that simulates the tank commander's voice. Approximately half of the voice communication is passive listening by the trainee. Practice requires feedback to reinforce correct behavior. DT feedback for communication skills (FREEZE, CRT display, and score printout) is inadequate because it is not immediate or natural. Although the DT audio tapes are realistic in simulating tank commanders' orders, the DT training is degraded because the voice tapes are not responsive to the performance of the trainee. The trainee can pratice repeatedly on the DT, but will not receive feedback concerning his communications since the device cannot detect them. For example, the simulated tank commander's response is the same no matter what the driver says. Thus, this feature decreases the credibility of communications exercises and may even frustrate the trainee. Continuous Movement Continuous movement tasks, such as driving a vehicle, require continuous physical response to a constantly changing visual stimulus. All of the segments of the driving programs that have the trainee control the motion of the simulated tank are of this type. Since guiding and steering tasks demand constant compensatory movement, the learning guidelines recommend that training emphasize prediction or anticipation of future conditions, to teach the trainee to control the dynamic nature of the task and provide continuous and accurate stimulus cues, reinforcement and feedback. Table 8 illustrates how the DT features meet these learning guideline requirements. All of the DT features that were listed for the general training guidelines (e.g., feedback) apply to continuous tasks.
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Table 8 DT Features for Continuous Movement Learning Guidelines Learning Guidelines Provide continuous accurate/ high fidelity/appropriate stimulus cues, reinforcement and feedback
Emphasize prediction of future conditions to teach trainees to control the dynamic nature of the task
Audio/Visual simulation tapes
Step-by-step instructions for
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,Steering indicator
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TC tells driver what to anticipate and how to respond
The guidelines recommend that the training emphasize prediction of future conditions to teach to the trainee the dynamic nature of the task. The driving programs in the DT furnish step-by-step instructions for the driving aspects that are new in the terrain shown in the visual tapes. The DT audio narrative includes several segments where the tank commander tells the driver what to anticipate and what driving skill will be required. Thus, while the trainee views the terrain, the tank commander provides instructional prompts, delivered in a manner that simulates what the driver will hear in the operational setting. This feature is illustrated in an excerpt from an audio instructional script (Fig. 2). Training guidelines for continuous steering tasks emphasize (1) the necessity for continuous realistic cues, feedback and reinforcement, and (2) that 'natural' feedback is superior to 'artificial.' Natural feedback for driving consists of knowledge that steering, acceleration and other guidance and control responses are successful in maintaining the correct speed and direction. It is critical that feedback be continuous because the nature of the task is such that the trainee must learn to adjust his performance continually depending on the cues he gets from the environment. Training guidelines emphasize overlearning to produce internal (e.g., proprioceptive) cues. The DT itself does not provide informative feedback, but uses a FREEZE mode, as described for the procedural tasks, to enable the instructor to provide performance information. Furthermore, the visual and audio simulations in the driving programs are not responsive to the trainee's performance. The visual scene accelerates only up to the speed that the tape was recorded; so that if the trainee speeds, the tape will not remain synchronized with his driving. The speedometer registers speeds higher than an actual tank can go and the tape does not respond at all to steering. To compensate, the DT has an indicator for steering deflection which appears in the trainee's periscope view (the instructor can delete this indicator). This feature is intended to show the trainee the extent of error in deflection of his steering compared to the correct track. However, instructors and trainees state that the indicator detracts from training. Making Decisions Decisions-making requires the application of a logic model when multiple solutions to problems are possible. The successful course of action and the penalties for failure are not readily apparent and the relative values and tradeoffs of possible solutions must be considered, often in a short time interval. Examples in tank driving are the diagnosis of equipment malfunction and selection of tactics. Learning guidelines for making decisions ensure that the trainee acquires the knowledge to identify the problems, generate reasonable solutions, evaluate these solutions, select and execute the best solutions, and provide knowledge of the results, focusing on predictability, timeliness, completeness, and consistency of decisions (Table 9).
23
Instructor You are now going to move forward again, so when the TC tells you to move out, place the transmission in drive, release the brake and twist the throttle grips toward you. TC:
Driver, slowly move out.
TC:
Driver, prepare to make a hard right followed by a hard left.
TC:
Driver, hard right.
TC:
Straight ahead.
TC:
Hard left.
TC:
Straight ahead.
TC:
Driver, stop.
TC:
Driver, slowly back up.
TC:
Driver, we're going to proceed down the center of this stream. It's less than four feet deep so we won't need the Fording Kit. Make sure the drain valves are closed, and take it easy so you don't create a bow wave. Okay, move out.
TC:
Keep it right down the center of the stream.
TC:
Okay, follow the tracks on the right.
TC:
Follow the tracks to the right.
TC:
Bear left, follow the tracks.
TC:
Follow the fresh tracks to the right.
TC:
That's an old AVLB up there--take it easy and make sure you're lined up.
Drive toward the center of those bleachers.
Figure 2. Audio Script for a Continuous Task
*
From Sperry SECOR, 1980, Vol. 4, pp. 771-772 and 959-960.
24
Table 9 DT Features for Decision Making Learning Guidelines Learning Guidelines
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Ensure that the trainee acquires the knowledge to: identify the problem, generate reasonable solutions, select and execute ~, the solution that seems best.
Provide knowleZdge of the results, focusing on predicability, timeliness, completeness, and consistency of decisions.
Audioscript in Procedure SPrograms presents information needed to make a decision,
DT Does not have enough variety in decision-making problems to this information.
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The first consideration in the decision-making strategy is to ensure that the trainee acquires the ability to: identify the problem, generate reasonable solutions, evaluate the solutions, select the solution that seems best and execute it. For example, the driver is required to make a decision when the tank brakes fail. Brake failure is presented in two of the DT programs: Procedure Program 11, Procedure 83 and Driving Program 22, Malfunction 3. In Procedure 83, the narrated, step-by-step instructions tell the trainee how to recognize the failure and alternative ways to stop the tank. The trainee must learn all the possible ways to stop the tank and must learn to use the one that fits the situation. Later, in Driving Program 22, Malfunction 3, the brakes fail and the driver must recognize the malfunction and decide how to stop the tank without prompting. The second consideration is to provide knowledge of the results, focusing on predictability, timeliness, completeness, and consistency of decisions. Knowledge of results in training decision-making tasks should focus on four critical areas. Were the trainee's solutions predictable; i.e., were they based on perceptual sets and response biases? Were the execution times appropriate? Were decisions complete in considering all the information? Were the solutions consistent with the information? The DT does not give feedback at this level of diagnosis because it does not contain enough decision-making problems. For example, the handling of brake failure is taught using only one situation where just two possible solutions apply. Thus, the DT as currently configured, does not contain a wide enough range of trainee solutions to assess the quality of decision-making. Use of the DT might be improved by including programs that present a greater variety of malfunction situations (e.g., brake failure that requires different types of solutions based on the terrain, tank speed, etc.). SUMMARY The strengths of the DT as a procedural training device are the capabilities for repetition of guided, active practice. The tasks in the programs are those the driver must learn before driving the tank. They include malfunctions and emergencies that cannot be inserted safely in the tank. Some of the weaknesses of the DT such as inadequate feedback can be overcome by the instructors as presented in the following section.
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INTEGRATION OF THE DT INTO THE PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION The overriding consideration concerning application of the DT is its use in the POI for tank drivers. The types of steps in the tasks, and thus the training strategies recommended by TECEP, form clusters of OT programs (Figure 3). While there are exceptions, it is generally true that the first five DT programs contain procedures with a few voice communications and no decisions or continuous movements. However, the trainee must be oriented to the intercom before Program 2. Voice communications occur in a few of the procedures in Programs 3 and 4 and in almost all of the procedures in Programs 6 through 12. The instructors can enhance the DT training by integrating use of the tank technical manual and job aids developed for the driver and by providing feedback, especially for slow learners. Repeated practice on procedures and malfunctions that require the driver to make decisions, such as the ones used during the driving programs, facilitates learning. A practice strongly supported by the training strategies in TECEP is the development of manual procedures and malfunction programs by the instructors. Such programs allow students to practice these procedures and malfunctions prior to the driving programs. Thorough preparation of the trainees before practice on the driving programs is expected to facilitate the integration of the procedural, voice communication, and decision skills with the continuous driving tasks. As of the summer of 1981, the tank driver POI allowed approximately two days for the blocks of instruction dealing with the topics presented in the DT. The DT appears to require more time for the instruction than scheduled in the POI. The trainee requires approximately 16 hours to complete the 12 procedure programs and another 20 hours for the driving programs. The regular POI does not necessarily provide active, guided practice for all trainees on all of the tasks; hence, it requires less time for instruction than the DT. If the DT is improved to provide practice with feedback, the additional time is likely to be worthwhile judging from the TECEP guidelines. If it does not provide adequate feedback, however, the additional time is difficult to justify. The repeated practice on decision tasks adds even more to the time required to complete the DT programs. If the trainees can be separated into those who do and do not need the extra practice, then the additional time could be spent with the slow learners and time could be saved by decreasing the time for fast learners. In summary, integration on the DT into the POI can be facilitated by the following activities on the part of the instructors: 1.
Before training begins: .
prepare briefings to introduce the use of the DT in the driver's block of instruction, the driver's intercom and the use of job aids, including the technical manual.
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prepare a training schedule that provides rest breaks, especially as reinforcement for faster learning, and a time standard with which trainees can compare their performance.
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make manual programs of the procedures and malfunctions that occur in the driving programs.
At the start of DT use in the POI, brief the trainees on: *
the use of the DT as it applies to the objectives of the driver's block of instruction
*
the driver's intercom
*
the use of the technical manual for procedures, malfunctions, troubleshooting and other job aids that are available.
Early in the DT programs, identify particularly fast and slow learners. 0
Fast learners can give peer instruction to the others using the AIS. This will reduce the number of assistant instructors required and increase the level of learning for the fast learners, who serve as instructors, as well as for the slow learners.
*
Fast learners should have breaks to reinforce their performance. Arrange for other positive reinforcers when possible (e.g., allowing them to have more time to drive the tank).
*
Provide more feedback and positive reinforcement to the slow learners.
4.
Provide more specific feedback when the DT freezes.
5.
Immediately before the driving programs, repeat the procedures and malfunctions that occur in those programs by using the manual programs. Have trainees repeat these programs until they perform correctly, then have them proceed with the driving programs.
6.
During the driving programs, turn off the steering indicator. If trainees focus on the indicator, they do not attend to the visual scene and speedometer that they need to observe while driving. After DT programs, provide practice in the tank for
7.
tasks not covered in the DT and for the decision-making and continuous movement tasks for which the DT feedback and coverage are not adequate. 29
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AUTOMATED TRAINING DEVICE FEATURES The literature on instructional features of computer-controlled training devices reveals innovative instructional concepts, some of which are within the DT capabilities and others suitable for a future driver trainer. Isley and Miller (1976) provided guidelines for incorporating automated training features in simulator design for Army flight training. While they deal with simulators for flight training, the same principles apply in the training of tank driving and other armor skills. Hughes (1978, 1979) expanded Isley and Miller's model by devising, a taxonomy of instructional features for automated devices, and Pohlmann, Isley and Caro (1979) developed design guides for the following instructional features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Demonstration preparation Demonstration Store/reset current conditions Manual freeze Parameter freeze Record/playback Remote display Hardcopy Malfunction simulation Automatic malfunction insertion exercise preparation Automatic malfunction insertion exercise
Simulation technology is moving away from reliance on equipment and physical fidelity toward instructional capabilities for producing more efficient and effective training. Approaches for such improvements include adaptive automated training and performance measurement, reduction of instructor time, manipulation of the task cues and restructure of the task during training (Eddowes & Wagg, 1980; Hughes, Paulsen, Brooks & Jones, 1978; Kottas & Bessemer, 1979; Pohlmann, Isley & Caro, 1979). These four advances comprise the categories of active instructional features in Hughes's Taxonomy. TAXONOMY OF DEVICE FEATURES Hughes first classified training device features into enabling and instructional features. Enabling features provide physical conditions and events, but do not provide instructional manipulation of them. Instructional features manipulate the enabling features to produce the desired changes in trainee performance. Enabling features, which are the 'conditions' given in the typical training objective, have equipment and environmental subclasses (Table 10). Equipment features consist of the simulations of physical and operational characteristics of the tank. Enabling features in the DT are presented to the trainees in the five trainee stations that contain the throttle and brake controls, indicators, and other physical characteristics of the tank driver's compartment. The second subclass of enabling features contains environmental conditions, either man-made or natural. DT simulations of environmental conditions include the audiovisual scenarios for driving programs.
*31
Table 10 Conceptual Framework for Training Features A. Enabling Features 1. Equipment (Tank) 2. Environmental B. Instructional Features 1. Passive 2. Active
(a)Substitute for instructor (b) Increase training efficiency (c)Augment cues and methods (d) Restructure task
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Instructional features, which may or may not be physical entities, are designed to produce the learning effect. They are assessed not by level of fidelity but by improvements in driver performance. Instructional features have two subclasses: passive and active. Instructional features that have little or no contact with the trainee are passive. Passive instructional features include the hardware and software for the instructor's stations, automatic scoring, and training management functions. These features assist the instructor in monitoring and evaluating performance. Examples are the functions available in the MIS and AIS (Table 4, page 12). Active instructional features have direct contact with the trainee and are the ones of most interest in training research and development. Isley and Miller's review of simulator capabilities provides illustrations of each type of active instructional feature: substitute for instructor, increase training efficiency, augment cues and methods, and restructure task (Table 11). Substitute for the Instructor Active instructional features substitute for the instructor by presenting pre-training briefings, demonstrations, instructions, prompts, and simulations of crew members. Automatic briefings present training objectives, procedures and activities the trainee will perform. They include information on displays and controls, instrument settings, criteria of correct performance, and other training information. Automatic pre-briefings are usually used in conjunction with other automated features (Isley & Miller, 1976). An automatic demonstration is a preprogrammed maneuver, series of maneuvers, or segment of a maneuver conducted under computer control to demonstrate ideal conditions (Isley & Miller, 1976). The computer actuates the indicators, controls, and simulations of vehicle and environmental conditions. It provides a model of the performance expected of the trainee. Pohlmann et al. (1979) distinguish the demonstrations themselves from the capability of the instructor to prepare a demonstration for repeated use. Demonstrations are recommended in the training algorithms for the continuous movement and voice communications tasks in the DT. However, demonstrations take up time that might otherwise be spent in active practice by the trainee and might, therefore, be counterproductive. Simulated crew members, such as the tank commander, assist the trainee in conducting realistic operations during the training, particularly with regard to voice communications. For example, a simulated tank commander generates command information required for the mission. The information may be provided by a tape, as in the DT, or by voice synthesizing equipment. It may be activated by the voice of the trainee or may entail full speech understanding (the latter may be prohibitively expensive; see Popelka & Knerr, 1980). Unfortunately, the simulated tank commander in the DT is not responsive to the trainee.
33
Table 11 Active Instructional Driver Trainer Features Categories of Active Features
N
DT Features
Substitute for Instructor
Automatic briefing Simulated tank commander Step-by-step recorded instructions Demonstration of displays
Increase Training Efficiency
Preprogrammed initial conditions Reset conditions Freeze Recorded explanation of steps omitted Expedited processes
Augment Cues and Methods
Preprogrammed malfunctions and procedures Automatic scoring and performance recording Steering indicator
Restructure Task
Performance-oriented guided practice Progression from simple to complex exercises
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Instructional features that substitute for the instructor in the DT include the audio tapes which describe the training objective, initial conditions, step-by-step instructions, tank commander simulation and end statement. The DT does not show demonstations, but leads the trainee through active practice at the driving tasks. The very early programs show the trainee the location of displays and instruments by activating them with little active practice. However, after the first few programs, the DT provides active performance. Increase Training Efficiency Instructional features make training more efficient by managing the training sequence and reducing the dead time. Examples are preprogrammed initial conditions, reset to specified condition, and freeze (Hughes, 1978; Isley & Miller, 1976; Pohlmann et al., 1979). Preprogrammed initial condition sets, or exercise setups, create in the simulated vehicle and environment a specific location with conditions appropriate for the start of the exercise. Parameters include location, engine and instrument readings, vehicle configuration, weapon and ammunition availability, and environmental conditions. The computer sets the vehicle controls, displays, and instruments. These are among the most widely used automated device features (Isley and Miller, 1976). The DT provides this type of initial condition situation for each audio only and audiovisual program. A store/reset current conditions capability permits the program or the instructor to establish the simulated conditions that existed at a particular point in the training (e.g., when the trainee made a critical error) and return to those conditions to review the trainee's performance (Pohlmann et al., 1979). The DT resets conditions when the program freezes. Hughes (1978) describes the use of freeze for the instructor to explain trainee errors, draw attention to particular aspects of the equipment or environment, or terminate an exercise. He also notes that the freeze capability is difficult to use effectively, and may be aversive to the trainee (Hughes, 1978, 1979, 1981). Features in the DT that increase training efficiency are the initiation of vehicle conditions, narration explaining what the trainee would normally do (ifthe training setting does not allow performance of the whole task), and simulation of time-consuming events (e.g., fuel transfer). The freeze capability of the DT does not increase training efficiency or relieve the instructor of training responsibilities. If the trainee violates one of the scoring rules, or if the program fails to run properly, the computer freezes and the instructor must additional present feedback as to 'he nature and correction of the error (ifany).
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Augment Cues and Methods Automated training devices can present situations and behavioral cues that cannot be presented in the operational equipment, and can monitor, record, and reproduce performance scores. Preprogrammed event insertions simulate malfunctions, system failures, and emergency conditions that cannot be induced in the operational equipment without risk to the trainee or equipment. Pohlmann et al. (1979) distinguish malfunction simulation, automatic malfunction insertion exercises, and preparation of the malfunction exercises. The malfunction simulation capability allows the instructor to simulate failure of a system component. The automatic malfunction insertion exercise has preprogrammed emergency or malfunction situations that occur when prespecified conditions are met or at specified points in the program. The malfunctions during driving progams in the DT are of the latter type. Automatic malfunction insertion exercise preparation refers to the capability of the instructor to prepare the exercises for repeated use. Thus, insertions can be either preprogrammed or under manual control of the instructor. Isley and Miller (1976) report that instructors prefer to insert malfunctions manually because the automatic ones often occur at inappropriate times and conditions. Some of the suggested additions to the programs for the DT are those that present malfunctions, emergency situations, and other conditions that require decision-making by the tank driver. Automated performance measurement recording and display is a major advantage of training devices. The scores are based on predefined, lists of standards or parameter tolerances. During the exercise the scores are used by the computer to determine application of freeze or audio or visual performance cues and feedback. Adaptive feedback alerts the trainee to deviations from the performance tolerances and may introduce additional cues or coaching messages (Isley & Miller, 1976). Examples are ground plots and expanded graphic presentations. However, augmented cues may not produce better performance and may produce significant disruption of performance upon their removal (Hughes, Paulsen, Brooks & Jones, 1973). The steering indicator in the DT is an example of an augmented cue with questionable effectiveness. Isley and Miller (1976) describe performance playback as an automatic, partial record of trainee performance, such as the last five minutes of an exercise. The playback repeats the exact instrument readings, control movements, equipment settings, environmental conditions, and voice recordings. Controls may allow freeze or replay of segments in real time or slow time. Playback applies self-confrontational notions of training. Variations include tape recordings and closed circuit television. The DT does not provide performance playback.
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Remote display refers to alphanumeric and graphic presentation of trainee performance at CRT or other types of output terminals. If both the trainee and instructor can see the display, it facilitates communication concerning correct and incorrect performance. The DT provides displays for the instructor but not for the trainee. Performance score printouts are produced by high speed printers or similar devices that provide permanent records of trainee performance. Printouts are valuable if the number of parameters is small and the record is easily interpreted by the instructor and trainee. The printout is not likely to be used if the number of parameters is large (Isley and Miller, 1976). Graphic displays are useful, since the cumulate scores for instructional management such as scheduling of training. Many of the suggestions for improvements in the DT relate to better scoring and the display and printout of the scoring. Restructure Task Instructional features that permit the instructor to alter the task during training include performance-oriented guided practice and adaptive training. In performance-oriented guided practice, the computer retains control of a segment of the exercise by controlling one or more subtasks. It provides part-task learning in which the trainee can become familiar with part of the task before performance of the whole task. Isley and Miller (1976) recommend performance-oriented guided practice in tasks that are too long and demanding for the trainee to complete at first. The DT programs incorporate this feature since they start with simple part-tasks, such as the early procedure and malfunction programs, and then combine the parts with the driving demands in later programs. Adaptive training tailors the complexity and difficulty of the task to the proficiency level of the trainee. These exercises are sequenced under computer control to increase or decrease the level of difficulty based on the trainee's performance. A prerequisite for adaptive training is a proficiency measurement system that accurately measures, records, and uses the information to determine the level of proficiency and to select the subsequent exercises. Non-adaptive exercises contain complete or part-task maneuvers or procedures that have predetermined, fixed conditions. They are not modified or adapted to changes in trainee proficiency. The programs in the DT are of this non-adaptive type. While the programs do progress from simple to complex, the progression is fixed and does not adapt to the trainee's performance. SUMMARY Capabilities of the DT, as it is currently configured, cover all four subsets of Hughes's active instructional features. A comparison of the DT capabilities with features cited in the computer-controlled training device literature indicates potential DT improvements in all subsets and especially in performance measurement, freeze, and feedback, as described in the next section. 37
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